Tuesday, January 17, 2017

Goffman: Stigma-Notes on A Spoiled Identity

STIGMA: Chapter 1

Stigma

A state of “markedness” in which there is a bodily SIGN designed to expose something unusual or bad about the moral status of an individual. TODAY the emphasis is on the DISGRACE rather than the physical signed of it.

--“scarlet letter”

--“gang tattoo”

--Slave branding

--Leprocy & other moral diseases

--Malformation & other disability

--subtle marks:

· How have each of you experienced STIGMA in your lives (we all have a story).

· How does our experience with stigmatization affect our experiences, choices and behaviors?

· What kinds of things are stigmatized by society & culture today?

· Can stigmas be manipulated?

SIGNIFIER ===SIGN (signified)

“Actual social identity” VS “Virtual social identity”

Discrepancy between the actual social identity of a person and the virtual social identity (all the traits we expect to associate with an individual based on first impressions) These discrepancies QUESTION THEIR IDENTITY in our minds. When these discrepancies create a negative evaluation of a person’s social identity. We call it a stigma.

· Not all discrepancies are stigmas

· Stigmas are attributes that deeply discrediting (social judgment)

· Evaluation can not be removed from its social context

· Can be apparent (discredited) or hidden (discreditable)

3 Types of Stigma:

· Abominations of the body

o Physical deformities

· Blemishes of the character

o Mental disorder, criminality, addiction, homosexuality, unemployment, divorce,

· Tribal stigma

o Race, religion, nationalism

In each case the individual has a mark which identifies them as discredited (other than expected) and interferes with normal social intercourse

Those without a mark we call NORMALS

Normals see those with stigmas at “not quite human”, and therefore we treat them with some sort discrimination which affects (reduces) their life chances.

1. “stigma theory” an ideology constructed to explain the inferiority of the stigmatized person and explain the dangerous (LIMINAL (VanGennup), Contaminating (Douglas)) nature of stigmatized people.

2. Stigma terminology is constructed as a shorthand to connect with these socially constructed and maintained beliefs (without having to really define what they mean)

o Moron, retard, bastard, faggot, cripple

3. Stigma Halo emanates from the category and we attribute a plethora of negative attributes to the original demarcation, including some “supernatural” or sixth sense on occasion (also imputes dangerous/nonhuman nature).

4. Shared Vision though there are exceptions, in the USA,

o Shame: stigmatized individuals tend to share the evaluation that normals have of them. This leads to a sense of “self alienation” and “disempowerment” that often prevents social change. It is not just the hegemony that keeps stigma alive; it is a SHARED SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING.

o This is strengthened by the fact that we have DEFINED STIGMA, and therefore have a set of clear expectations for their behavior, and a mandate for it to be realized. NORMALS have a greater set of options for behavior and decreased expectations for meeting these characteristics since the ABSENCE OF STIGMA defines them in large part.

o EXCEPTIONS: often need to separate themselves from hegemonic society & create their own norms: Orthodox Jews, Gypsies, Mennonites, etc.

o Goal: erase shame and achieve Acceptance.

Paths to Acceptance:

1. Correct cause of stigma (erase blemish)

· plastic surgery

· conversion through therapy to heterosexuality

· born again

2. Strive to Overcome Deficit

· Bind person learns to ski

· Wheelchair athlete
3. Deny the stigmatized evaluation by society

Normal & Stigmatized Interactions

These are often difficult and rife with discomfort from both sides

Sympathetic Others

· Those who share the stigma

o Create a support community

o share a differently constructed value system

o feel at-ease with this knowledge

o disadvantage used as a basis for organizing their lives with others of similar disadvantage (shared common experience)

o May REJECT the stigmatized group and ally with normals (don’t focus on stigma)

o May lead to a negative valuation by

o Networks, urban milieu, residential communities

§ Use softer language (PC)

§ Represent the community in public/events

§ Lobby for the concerns of the stigmatized

§ Create publications which create an “ideology of membership”

o Success Stories: become REPRESENTATIVES of their “category” of stigma

· The Wise: those who are normal but whose special situation make them privy to and sympathetic to the situation of the stigmatized. (receive a COURTESY STIGMA)

o Must offer themselves to the stigmatized community

o Must wait to be accepted by the stigmatized community

§ Someone who serves the community (physical therapists)

§ Someone who is kin to (family) with the community

· Family inherit stigmatization

· Can make normals uncomfortable and may themselves experience a separate stigmatization

Moral Career: the personal history of stigmatization

(4 patterns)

1. Inborn stigma: become socialized into their disadvantaged position even while learning and incorporating the standards against which they fall short

2. Protective Capsule (family/community): How long this protective capsule can last will depend upon social standing, isolation, etc.---home schooling, private school, physical isolation, information control---problems can arise when the capsule can no longer provide protection

3. One Who becomes Stigmatized Late in Life: learns about the normal and the stigmatized long before he must recognize himself as deficient—need to REIDENTIFY. Special likelihood of developing disapproval of self.

4. Initially Socialized in Stigma and then Reintegrated: uneasy feeling about new acquaintances and status may give way to uneasy feeling about old ones. (sometimes applies to #3)

#3 & #4 may experience “affiliation cycles” where they vacillate between affiliation in the two disparate groups.

INFORMATION CONTROL AND PERSONAL IDENTITY

Information control between DISCREDITED and NORMALS are focused on managing the tension generated in social interaction.
Interactions between DISCREDITED and NORMALS are focused on managing information about one's failing.

PASSING (as we will see) is the management of undisclosed discrediting information.

SOCIAL INFORMATION

SIGNS: convey social information about one's ABIDING CHARACTERISTICS as opposed to temporary ones.

expressed by the individual because they are embodied during social interaction

SYMBOLS: Routinely sought and received signs (manipulated in social interactions)

status symbol (points), Stigma symbol (slips)
draw attention to ones identity immediately
DISIDENTIFIERS: sign or symbol meant to throw doubt on a stigmatized social identity

speaks "good English"
wears a suit and tie

can have variable meaning within a culture

rainbow
tattoo
colors

WITH: company you keep acts as a social symbol

VISIBILITY

the degree to which a stigma is visible/perceivable, determines one's options for passing

OBTRUSIVENESS: how much the stigma interferes with social interaction
KNOWN-ABOUT-NESS: how much the stigma is common knowledge or the social group is aware of it (previous knowledge)
PERCEIVED FOCUS: the behavioral expectations , social disqualifications, which are perceived to be associated with a particular stigma
DECODING CAPACITY OF THE AUDIENCE: how the audience is able to read the symbols and signs determines its visibility.

PERSONAL IDENTITY (as opposed to social identity)

"Breaking Through" (Fred Davis) an attempt to move from "impersonal (stereotypic social id) to personal contact (relieves stigma). Successfully establishing a personal rather than a social identity=NORMALIZATION
SHELTERING: protection of a stigmatized person by individuals and/or institutions that know them personally.
discredited and discrediting individuals have very different problems managing personal identity.

discrediting persons may avoid intimates for fear of judgement (choosing others as sympathetic)
easily concealed stigmas often have a greater potential impact on intimates (impotence, addiction, abuse, homosexuality) because it challenges ones personal identity
sometimes intimates will help hide their stigma by COVERING for the passing individual

Personal Identity (uniqueness and individual characteristics) vs Social Identity (embodied signs and symbols. MANAGEMENT:

BIOGRAPHY (every one has a story that they can construct and manage)

memory
testimony of others
non-contradictory facts
PERSONAL PR
IDENTITY DOCUMENTS
Manipulation of Optional symbols (Jewish star, eg)

PASSING

Usually falls between complete secrecy on the one hand, and complete revelation on the other. WHY DO IT?

There are great REWARDS for being "normal", therefore those that have the opportunity to do so will often pass
BLACKMAIL: revelation by those who are aware of the persons personal identity

so, FEAR of being found out when passing. The more that one knows of your biography, the more treacherous it is to be around them

DOUBLE LIFE: the individual keeps two separate social and personal identities by creating two separate physical spheres of interaction (double biography may develop here).
3 SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTS

OUT OF BOUNDS PLACES-cant go lest they be found out
CIVIL PLACES-places where they can interact with normals
BACK PLACES -places where they can be themselves and not have to worry about passing or any other stigma management

High level of anxiety due to deeper and deeper lying. may experience alienation from both groups (normals and stigmatized)
children with a stigma pass with the help of parents efforts (unwitting passer-sheltering)

repercussions can be damaging
when do you let them know about the" real world"

TECHNIQUES OF INFORMATION CONTROL

name changing (some famous examples)

Alan Alda (Alphonzo de'Abruzzo)
Jennifer Aniston (Jennifer Anastanssakis)
George Burns (Nathan Birenbaum)
Dyan Cannon (Samille Diane Friesen)
Lee J Cobb (Leo Jacoby)
Tony Curtis (Bernard Schwartz)
Rodney Dangerfield (Jacob Cohen)
Kirk Douglas (Issur Danielovitch)
Melvyn Douglas (Melvyn Hesselberg)
John Garfield (Julius Garfinkel)
Paulette Goddard (Marion Levy)
Joel Grey (Joe Katz)
Lawrence Harvey (Larushka Mischa Skikne)
Judy Holiday (Judith Tuvim)
Danny Kaye (David Daniel Kaminsky)
Jerry Lewis (Joseph Levitch)
Peter Lorre (Lazio Lowenstein)
--------------
Amahd Rashad (Bobby Moore)
Muhammad Ali (Cassius Marcellus Clay)
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (Ferdinand Lewis Alcinder)

reject using a "stigma tool"
use of disidentifiers and concealment of stigma symbols
present signs of a horrible stigma as a LESS HORRIBLE STIGMA
confide only in a small group who help you & pass to everyone else (curtail intimacy & enlist mutual aid in passing)
Voluntarily disclose stigma

wear stigma symbol
make fleeting references to stigma
DISCLOSURE ETIQUETTE: prevents others from slipping up in social situations and is appreciated in social interaction by normals
LEARNING HOW TO PASS: one stage in the stigmatized persons development according to Goffman. later they become comfortable with their identity and feel no need to pass (empowerment)

COVERING

Managing the difference between obtrusiveness and visibility.making a great effort to minimize the obtrusiveness of a stigma. MORE COMMON THAN PASSING (which is both difficult and risky). Only option to some who are visible at all times.

reduce social tension

change name to English
assimilation techniques used by ethnic groups
give others dispensation from politeness rules

draw attention away from the stigma
hide unpleasant images or ideas

get a nose job
wear dark glasses
get breast reconstruction
cover a scar
wear a prosthesis
wear makeup

feign normalcy

learn to get on in the normal world
adapt your behavior to normals

AMBIVALENCE OF THE STIGMATIZED

oscillations of identification and association the individual exhibits regarding his FELLOW stigmatized
ranks his own by how obtrusive they are
the more allied with NORMALS the individual is, the more he will see himself in non-stigmatic terms (usually)
concern with group "purity" distaste with the exhibition of stereotypical traits of others of his kind

NEARING :coming close to an undesirable instance of his own kind while in the presence of normals...most profound

PRIMAL SCENE IN SOCIOLOGY

These are situations in which the lack of "normality of an interaction becomes PAINFULLY apparent. In Primal scenes the OBVIOUS character of a stigmatized person is bared for all to see and the nature of the stigma (what makes it less than human) is revealed. Primal scenes make us VERY UNCOMFORTABLE.

PROFESSIONAL PRESENTATIONS

codes of behavior for the stigmatized:

desirable patterns of revealing and concealing
forulas for dealing with tickleish situations
support he shopuld give to his own
typoe of fraternization with normals
attacks to his own kind he should IGNORE or TAKE TO HEART
the extent to which he should present himself "just like everyone else"
the extent to which he should expect/demand special treatment
the facts about his own to take pride in
the facts about his own he should "face up to"
warned against attempting to pass completely
warned against fully accepting the negative attitude of others
warned against MINSTRALIZATION

stigmatized person acts out before normals, the full stereotypical extent of the bad qualities imputed to his kind (viewed as clownish)

warned against NORMIFICATION (deminstralization)

stigmatized person

to fail to adhere to the code is to be SELF-DELUDED & MISGUIDED. Adhering is considered AUTHENTICITY (someone who is well adapted and true to themselves)

---may through this advice become a critic of the sical scene (acute observer of human relations) "Situation Conscious"

---feelings of exposure and betrayal as these codes often touch on private and personal matters.

More Rules!

IN-GROUP ALIGNMENTS (rules for behavior):

consolidates public image on outspoken politisized member
militancy in group behavior can lead to further separation and decreased acceptance

OUT-GROUP ALIGNMENTS (rules for behavior):

if he follows the requests of normals, he is seen as well-adjusted (psychological definition)
fulfil normal activities as best as you can
dont make a big deal about your stigma
dont feel bitter or resentful
help others in mixed social situations (relax normals by covering)
let normals present FEEL like wise ones
acceptance is conditional on following the expectations for adjustment

POLITICS OF IDENTITY (rules for behavior)

should act NORMAL, but not too normal (contradiction)
a subset of the group will REFUSE TO COVER (new discrimination-Yoshino)
distinction is made between BEING & DOING (assimilation oriented-Yoshino)
what happens when you are stigmatized but can't meet these identity norms?

support the norms but do not realize them
reject the norms & alienate yourself from the community
passing & covering

DEVIATIONS & DEVIANCE

In-Group Deviant- outlier in a group of stigmatized people whoise biography will explain their strangeness
Social deviant: members of a group of outlies who reject normal society and its morays. May feel that they are better than normals. Obtaining potential recruits from normal society and often sympathy.

collective denial of social order
fail to use opportunities to advance
show disrespect

bohemians
political radicals

MEDIA PORTRAYALS: How do they impact our views?

Essay#1: Goffman on Stigma

Stigma & Its Role in Community Action-Lessons from Goffman

Anth/Socy 2410

Spring 2017

After reading Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity, by Irving Goffman, choose a “spoiled identity” and reflect on the FORCES & PROCESSES which Goffman claims are responsible for creating and managing stigma in the United States, through the lens of the discredited. How are “covering” and “passing” overlapping and distinct phenomena used to manage discrediting/ed information? How does our media and pop-culture contribute to the definition and changing attitudes toward the stigmatized (you)? What kinds of interventions may be effective from an institutional level in reducing stigmatization in your example?

Your essay should include a detailed description of the identity you choose (use Goffman for ideas about what needs description) including signs, symbols, psychological and physical experience of stigmatization, moral career, and acts of management.
Make sure you focus some attention in your analysis of the media/popular culture, since this is the focus of the course this term
Your interventions can be both hypothetical and real, as long as they are presented according to Goffman’s analysis.
Essays are graded for WRITING and your grasp of the material. Spelling, rhetorical style, and the quality of your analysis (including supportive examples) will all figure in your essay grade.

Final Papers and Poster Presentations

ethnography assignment

Ethnographic Observations of a Stigmatized Community

"An ethnography is the telling of a people's story" (Translating Culture, 312).

Ethnography, both as a method of documenting cultural practice and as a genre of writing, has expanded far beyond the early twentieth century anthropological study of tribal societies. Ethnographers today document and describe urban gangs, corporate offices, fisheries, online gaming, and, as we find in our reading for week six, bilingual courtrooms.

Now it is your turn. For the next semester, you will engage in an ethnographic project that entails observing and documenting the everyday lives of a stigmatized group in our community. The object of this study is to examine the relationships between stigmatized people and “normal society”.

Beginning: Data Collection

1. Choose a stigmatized group in your community (this can either be located on or away from the college).

2. While you are doing the readings, analysis and discussions in class, take notes about how these observations are borne out in your chosen community. Not all readings will be relevant, but certainly the GOFFMAN essay is (among others). The observations you are able to make from your readings will enhance the quality of your ethnographic essay.—Keep a notebook of your thoughts.

3. Spend as much time interacting with your stigmatized group as you can. You should observe them in as natural and least obtrusive way that you can. You will have to get permission to do this, so choose a group that you are able to gain access to. While practicing this participant observation, take note of the following:

a. What are the shared values of the group?

b. What are the shared practices of the group?

c. Does this group have a “back place”? Describe it.

d. Is this group politically organized? How does this organization function? What are their goals?

*Your goal here is to describe the daily lives of this stigmatized group to the best

of your ability.—record in writing and photographs if you are able.

Middle: Analysis

1. Compare the (sub)culture you are describing with the values, beliefs and practices of “normal society”. How are these the same? How are they different? Remember that this is the focus of your ethnographic essay.

2. Interview a principle informant. Include personal stories from this informant that illustrate this comparison and contrast. Be sure that you change names and otherwise work to protect the identity and privacy of those you are interviewing. Your final essay should include 3 short personal accounts. (Yours may be one of them!)

3. While it may not be THE most important element of ethnographic writing, I want to encourage/emphasize the need for you all to evoke a response from the reader, to write in such a way that your writing will resonate with them on a visceral level. In order to help you facilitate this process, here are two specific writing exercises, each of which should be used in your final piece.

· Begin with a personal narrative that focuses on your relationship with the topic. Tell a short story about the your understanding of, interaction with this stigma/group, trying the to get the reader to feelyour connection. Don't make any conscious reference to the research yet. Just stick to what YOU know and feel about it from experience. (3-4 paragraphs)

· Choose a specific scene, instance, description of action, or the space of your research. Work to describe it, to bring it to the reader in such a way that they can "be there." (3-4 paragraphs)

Finally: Write it up!

Ethnographic essays should be 8-10 pages, and may include photographs and other bits of illustrative material. Be creative. You will be encouraged to share snippets of your experiential research over the course of the semester.

1. Remember that your essay should be evocative

2. Your essay should also clearly show the struggles of your stigmatized group in normal society. Highlight their challenges.

Other Stuff:

· Ethics. Consider your impact on the environment and the community. Is the setting a public place which does not require you to inform people that they are being observed? If not, how might you inform people that they are part of a research project?

· Assumptions. Try not to prove pre-existing theories you have about the context and activities happening (and then see how hard this is!).

· Time. While I don't want to make static time requirements for this assignment, the concept of 'intense observation' should connote more than one or two hours of observation. MMinimally your contact with the community should be WEEKLY. Aim for about 15-20 hours of total contact.

·        Guidelines for 'looking':
1. Observers try to uncover and record the unspoken common sense assumptions of the group
                that they are studying. Therefore, some of these you will observe without them being
                explained to you.
2. Draw & Take Photographs. Field notes should be more than writing; drawing maps and
sketching activities is often very useful when trying to remember the details of what you
                have seen.
      3. Reflect on your own actions. Ethnographers alter themselves in order to fit into

their contexts as unobtrusive observers and as participant observers. How much

do you have to adapt yourself in order to learn about the context and culture that

you are studying?
4. Language: Is there a special language/vocabulary that your group uses to describe
themselves or simply communicate group beliefs or group membership? Contrast this
with symbols and vocabulary used by “normals” to describe them.

______________

Poster Session 101 (required along with written mini-ethnography)

General format

Determine the one essential concept you would like to get across to the audience.
Re-read your abstract once again - are those statements still accurate?
Determine the size of the poster (if you had read the instructions, you would already know this!).
Determine if you have all the elements you'll need for the poster: Bits & pieces?Poster board, glue, razor blades, Band aids . . . Data? Do you have the data you will need? How much time will you need to prepare the data for presentation (tables, photographs, etc.)? Outside agencies? Does material need to be sent out & returned (photographic services, collaborators)?

A word of advice (the first of many; pick and choose what works for you). Preparing a poster will take as much time as you let it. Allocate your time wisely.

There are always things that go wrong, so do not wait until the last minute to do even a simple task.
This is a public presentation; by planning carefully, striving to be clear in what you say and how you say it, and assuming a professional attitude you will avoid making it a public spectacle.
If you have little experience making posters, it will take longer (estimate 1 week at the very minimum).
Too much lead time, however, encourages endless fussing about. Do the poster to the best of your ability, then go do something else.

Sketch it out!

Make a sketch of the poster, using 4 inch x 6 inch cards:

Arrange the contents in a series of 3, 4, or 5 columns. This will facilitate the flow of traffic past the poster:

Place the elements of the poster in position:

The title will appear across the top.
A brief introduction (3 - 5 sentences) will appear at the upper left.
The conclusions will appear at the lower right.
Methods and Results will fill the remaining space.

The Title banner

This part of the poster includes the title of the work, the authors names, the institutional affiliations, and the poster number.

Think BIG!

The title banner should be readable from 15 - 20 feet away.
If space permits, use first names for authors to facilitate interactions.
Middle initials and titles are seldom necessary, however.
Use abbreviations where possible.
City names, or even states, often may be dropped from the institutional affiliations.
There are seldom rules regarding line justification of the title. Determine if you will left or center justify the text of the title banner once it has been formatted, based upon personal preferences and space constraints.
Refer to your meeting guidelines for more details specific to the meeting you plan to attend.

Title Fonts:

Make it easy on your information-saturated audience.

Use a simple, easy to read font. A san serif style, such as Helvetica (Mac) or Arial (IBM), is ideal.
Use boldface and all-caps for the title itself.
Use boldface and mixed upper/lower case for the authors names.
Use plain text, no boldface, and mixed upper/lower case for affiliations.
Use boldface for the poster session number (the number you are assigned by the organizing committee).

Title sizes

The most important parts of the title banner, the title itself and the poster session number, should be readable from about 25 feet away. Your title will lure viewers closer to see your imaginative and exciting study. The rest of the title, and the body of the poster, should be readable from about 10 feet away.

The final size of letters in the title itself should be about 1.5 - 2 inches tall. That is about a 96 point size (or 48 points enlarged by 200% when printed.
The authors names may be printed smaller, at 72 points (1 - 1.5 inches)
Titles (Ph.D., M.D.) are usually omitted, although the meeting organizers may require that the presenting author, student authors, or society members be indicated.
Affiliations can be even smaller, at about 36 - 48 points (0.5 - 0.75 inch)
The poster session number should be printed separately, at about 96 point size. It typically is placed in the top of the title banner, to the left, right, or at the center.

Banner assembly:

A one-piece banner is easiest to carry, and some places have an in-house banner-making service. Commercial firms may also offer this service - try a Kinko's or similar company. I've noticed that branches of these companies that are located close to a university are more flexible in meeting academic & scientific needs than those branches located in shopping malls or the business community.

If you choose this route:

Call the banner service and ask for specific instructions regarding formatting and submission. Here are some Details for those at the KU Medical Center.
Proofread the banner. Several times.
Save it to disk. Then back it up onto another disk.

An alternative is to use a laser printer and double-stick tape:

Set the printer output to landscape (wide) format, using 11 x 14 inch paper (you'll have fewer seams than if you use 8.5 x 11 inch paper).
Print the title & lay it out on a table. Proofread it now, rather than after you have assembled it!
Successive pages should overlap with only a small margin.
Trim the overlap off one side of each page, and place a piece of double-stick tape in that position on the other page, then align the successive pages.
This process is easier if you have included 2 thin, parallel lines across all pages of the banner, one above the text & one below. These lines will make it easier to align multiple pages. Once the banner is printed and put together, you can trim away the parallel lines with a straightedge & razor blade.

Either method produces a title banner which should be about 4 - 8 inches tall, and which can be rolled into a compact cylinder for travel.

Use of Color

Mount poster materials on colored art, mat, or bristol board:

Mat board is available in a large range of colors.
Mat board is heavier, making it more difficult to crease the poster while traveling.
Mat board has a more durable surface than other art papers.
Mat boards is, however, heavier and more difficult to attach to display boards in the poster session.

Use a colored background to unify your poster:

Muted colors, or shades of gray, are best for the background. Use more intense colors as borders or for emphasis, but be conservative - overuse of color is distracting.
Two to three related background colors (Methods, Data, Interpretation) will unify the poster.
If necessary for emphasis, add a single additional color by mounting the figure on thinner poster board, or outlining the figure in colored tape.

Color can enhance the hues or contrast of photographs:

Use a light background with darker photos; a dark background with lighter photos.
Use a neutral background (gray) to emphasize color in photos; a white background to reduce the impact of colored photos.
Most poster sessions are held in halls lit with harsh fluorescent light. If exact colors are important to the data, balance those colors for use with fluorescent lighting. Also, all colors will be intensified; bright (saturated) colors may become unpleasent to view.

Sequencing contents

The poster should use photos, figures, and tables to tell the story of the study. For clarity, it is important to present the information in a sequence which is easy to follow:

Determine a logical sequence for the material you will be presenting.
Organize that material into sections (Methods, Data/Results, Implications, Conclusions, etc.).
Use numbers (Helvetica boldface, 36 - 48 points) to help sequence sections of the poster.
Arrange the material into columns.
The poster should not rely upon your verbal explanation to link together the various portions.

Edit Ruthlessly!

There ALWAYS is too much text in a poster.

Posters primarily are visual presentations; the text materials serve to support the graphic materials.

Look critically at the layout. If there is about 20% text, 40% graphics and 40% empty space, you are doing well.
When in doubt, rephrase that text or delete it. (Keep chanting this mantra: Therealways is too much text. Always too much text.)
Use active voice when writing the text; It can be demonstrated becomes The data demonstrate.
Delete all redundant references and filler phrases, such as see Figure ...
Remove all material extraneous to the focal point of the poster.
Since the abstract is usually published, there is no need to repeat it in the poster. The brief introduction should be sufficient to identify the purpose of the study.
Since graphs & figures will have explanatory captions, there is no need to label the graphic with Figure 1, Table 2, etc.

The poster is not a publication of record, so excessive detail about methods, or vast tables of data are not necessary. This material can be discussed with interested persons individually during or after the session, or presented in a handout.

Illustrations

The success of a poster directly relates to the clarity of the illustrations and tables.

Self-explanatory graphics should dominate the poster.
A minimal amount of text materials should supplement the graphic materials.
Use regions of empty space between poster elements to differentiate and accentuate these elements.
Graphic materials should be visible easily from a minimum distance of 6 feet.
Restrained use of 2 - 3 colors for emphasis is valuable; overuse is not.

Show no mercy when editing visual materials!

Once again, ruthless editing is very important.

Visual distractions increase fatigue and reduce the probability of viewers giving the poster a thorough read.

Restrained use of large type and/or colored text are the most effective means of emphasizing particular points.
Use short sentences, simple words, and bullets to illustrate discrete points.
Have the left edges of materials in a column aligned; center alignment produces ragged left & right edges. This makes reading the poster more difficult.
Avoid using jargon, acronyms, or unusual abbreviations.
Remove all non-essential information from graphs and tables (data curves not discussed by the poster; excess grid lines in tables)
Label data lines in graphs directly, using large type & color. Eliminate legends and keys.
Artful illustrations, luminous colors, or exquisite computer-rendered drawings do not substitute for CONTENT.
Lines in illustrations should be larger than normal. Use contrast and colors for emphasis.
Use colors to distinguish different data groups in graphs. Avoid using patterns or open bars in histograms.
Use borders about 0.5 inches all around each figures. Border colors can be used to link related presentations of data.
Colored transparency overlays are useful in comparing/contrasting graphic results

Poster text

Double-space all text, using left-justification; text with even left sides and jagged right sides is easiest to read.
The text should be large enough to be read easily from at least 6 feet away.

Section headings (Introduction, Methods, etc.); use Helvetica, Boldface, 36 point
Supporting text (Intro text, figure captions, etc.); use Helvetica, 24 point (boldface, if appropriate)
If you must include narrative details, keep them brief. They should be no smaller than 18 point in size, and printed in plain text. Remember that posters are not publications of record, and you can always come to the session armed with handouts.

One option is to consider using a larger size (36 pt) for the Conclusion text, and a smaller size (18 pt) for Methods text.

Attempt to fit blocks of text onto a single page:

This simplifies cutting and pasting when you assemle the poster.
For the same reason, consider using 11 x 14 inch paper in the landscape mode when printing text blocks on laser printers.

Other options for fonts include Helvetica, Arial, Geneva, Times Roman, Palatino, Century Schoolbook, Courier, and Prestige. Note that these fonts represent a range of letter spacing and letter heights. Keep in mind that san serif fonts (having characters without curliques or other embellishments) are easiest to read.

Finally, be consistent. Choose one font and then use it throughout the poster. Add emphasis by using boldface, underlining, or color; italics are difficult to read.

The Poster's Background

Two basic rules to keep in mind are that

1) Artistry does not substitute for content

2) The fancier the poster, the greater the time investment.

There are several common approaches.

Some folks use pieces of mat board (or Bristol board) to make a solid background for the entire poster. They may then choose to use a complementary color as a border for important elements of the poster.
Others use smaller pieces of board to frame only the elements of the poster, leaving spaces between the elements empty.
Either approach works; the former gives a unified appearance and is easier to hang straight, while the latter is easier to carry to and from the meeting. It is also possible, but often expensive, to have a commercial house reproduce your completed poster as a single large sheet of paper, which can then be rolled into a cylinder for transport.
The choice of a background (and complement) color is up to you. The general consensus, however, is that softer colors (pastels, greys) work best as a background - they are easiest to view for hours at a time, and offer the best contrast for text, graphic, and photographic elements.

With an increasing reliance placed upon poster presentations for information transfer at meetings, there comes an increased impatience with poorly presented materials.

Although the poster preparation will expand to fill whatever time you allow it, don't be caught with an unfinished poster!

Plan ahead!

You have probably heard this again and again. That is because it is IMPORTANT!

Planning ahead is particularly important if photographs are to be used.

Allow time for at least two rounds of photographic processing to take place, just in case.
Custom photo processing may be more expensive, but offers rapid turn-around and precise color balancing.
Use sufficient enlargement to allow details to be seen at a distance of 6 feet or more.

Down to the Wire and Beyond

Those who choose to live on the edge should note that:

Many larger meetings will have computers available for modifying posters. These facilities are, however, usually crowded.
There are always photo supply stores near the meeting which will sell you poster materials.
If you are unfamiliar with the city, ask the hotel concierge for local businesses which might be able to help. Remember to tip!
Many hotels will have photocopy and Fax machines for guest use, and telecommunication ports in the hotel rooms.
The world of portable computers and the Internet offers interesting possibilities for a graceful recovery. Leave your poster on a server and you can access it from a remote site.
Before you leave for the trip, make a final backup copy & leave the disk in an obvious place. That way, you can have someone who has stayed behind print portions of the poster and fax then to you.

Miscellaneous comments

Since a poster is essentially a visual presentation, try to find ways to show what was done - use schematic diagrams, arrows, and other strategies to direct the visual attention of the viewer, rather than explaining it all using text alone.
Design the poster to address one central question. State the question clearly in the poster, then use your discussion time with individuals to expand or expound upon issues surrounding that central theme.
Provide an explicit take-home message.
Summarize implications and conclusions briefly, and in user-friendly language.
Give credit where it is due. Have an acknowledgements section, in smaller size type (14 - 18 point), where you acknowledge contributors and funding organizations.
Vary the size and spacing of the poster sections to add visual interest, but do so in moderation.

----------------SUMMARY-------------------------------

Below are particular points to consider when putting your poster together:

Ø Divide the contents of your poster into appropriate sections. For instance -- title of paper, author, institutional affiliation; abstract; methodology; data; results; conclusions. Be sure to include each section on a separate sheet(s) of paper.

Ø Use larger (than 16 font) lettering for the poster's title, author and institutional affiliation. Make the lettering at least one inch high.

Ø Avoid fonts that are script or difficult to read.

Ø If hand lettering is required, use a black felt-tip pen (Sharpie).

Ø Be concise with your written material. Save elaborative points for discussion/interaction with viewers. For conclusions, focus on a central finding that lends itself to informal discussion.

Ø Use graphs, charts and/or tables (color if possible) to show results. Graphics help make your poster interesting.

Ø A neutral poster or matte board is more amenable to the eye than a bright colored background. A splash of color here and there, perhaps highlighting central finding(s) or provocative results, will make your poster "stand out" from the crowd.

Ø A mailing tube or portfolio case is recommended for transporting your poster.

Ø Have a notepad handy when presenting at your poster session. It may be helpful in elaborating on your findings, or for taking names & addresses of people interested in your research.